1. Balance control of the Battery Management System (BMS)
Passive equalization: Through resistor discharge, the energy of high-charge cells is dissipated in the form of heat, making the voltages of each cell tend to be consistent. It is suitable for cost-sensitive scenarios, but the efficiency is relatively low.
Active balancing: It transfers the energy of high-charge cells to low-charge cells through energy transfer (such as capacitors/inductors), which is highly efficient and reduces energy waste, making it suitable for high-value battery packs (such as electric vehicles).
Function: To correct the voltage/capacity differences between battery cells in real time and prevent the overall performance decline caused by the "shortboard effect".

2. Optimize the charging and discharging strategy
Shallow charging and discharging: Control the charging and discharging range within 20% to 80% SOC (State of charge), avoid deep charging and discharging (such as below 10% or above 90%), and reduce lithium dendrite growth and electrode stress.
Low-rate charging and discharging: By using a current of 0.5C or less, the polarization effect is reduced and the aging rate difference between battery cells is slowed down.
Full charge calibration: Perform 100% charge and discharge every 3 to 6 months and let it stand still to help the BMS recalibrate the SOC estimation.

3. Strict temperature management
Uniform temperature design: Liquid cooling/air cooling system is adopted to ensure that the temperature difference within the battery pack is less than 5°C. The battery cells age more rapidly in high-temperature areas, intensifying the inconsistency.
Operating temperature range: Control within 15 to 35° C. Avoid low-temperature charging (< 0°C is prone to lithium plating) or high-temperature operation (> 45°C accelerates the growth of the SEI film).

4. Regular inspection and maintenance
Parameter monitoring: Monthly detection of the voltage and internal resistance of each battery cell (AC impedance method). Abnormal battery cells (such as voltage deviation > 5%) need to be dealt with separately.
Capacity calibration: Conduct a full capacity test once a year (discharge at 1C to the cut-off voltage), and remove cells with capacity attenuation greater than 20%.
Maintenance records: Establish a battery cell aging database, predict inconsistent trends and intervene in advance.

5. Principles for battery cell matching and replacement
Initial consistency: For new battery packs, it is necessary to ensure that the differences in internal resistance, capacity, and self-discharge rate of the cells are less than 3% (through sorting processes).
Group replacement: When replacing aged battery cells, the entire group should be replaced or the parameters of the new and old battery cells should be strictly matched to avoid the mixed use of new and old ones.

6. Storage and Transportation Specifications
Storage SOC: Maintain 50% SOC during long-term storage, and avoid full charge (accelerating electrolyte decomposition) or empty charge (causing copper foil corrosion).
Environmental control: Storage temperature 15~25°C, humidity < 60%, avoid physical structure changes caused by vibration or compression.

7. Software algorithm optimization
SOC/SOH estimation: Kalman filtering or neural network algorithms are adopted to enhance the accuracy of battery power and health estimation and avoid cumulative errors.
Dynamic equalization trigger threshold: Adjust the equalization start-up conditions according to the aging degree of the battery cells (such as gradually relaxing the voltage difference from 50mV to 100mV).